10.1 Gaseous Elements and Compounds

The three common phases (or states) of matter are gases, liquids, and solids. Gases have the lowest density of the three, are highly compressible, and completely fill any container in which they are placed. Gases behave this way because their intermolecular forces are relatively weak, so their molecules are constantly moving independently of the other molecules present. Solids, in contrast, are relatively dense, rigid, and incompressible because their intermolecular forces are so strong that the molecules are essentially locked in place. Liquids are relatively dense and incompressible, like solids, but they flow readily to adapt to the shape of their containers, like gases. We can therefore conclude that the sum of the intermolecular forces in liquids are between those of gases and solids. Figure 10.1 "A Diatomic Substance (O" compares the three states of matter and illustrates the differences at the molecular level.

Figure 10.1 A Diatomic Substance (O₂) in the Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous States

(a) Solid O₂ has a fixed volume and shape, and the molecules are packed tightly together. (b) Liquid O₂ conforms to the shape of its container but has a fixed volume; it contains relatively densely packed molecules. (c) Gaseous O₂ fills its container completely—regardless of the container’s size or shape—and consists of widely separated molecules.

The state of a given substance depends strongly on conditions. For example, H₂O is commonly found in all three states: solid ice, liquid water, and water vapor (its gaseous form). Under most conditions, we encounter water as the liquid that is essential for life; we drink it, cook with it, and bathe in it. When the temperature is cold enough to transform the liquid to ice, we can ski or skate on it, pack it into a snowball or snow cone, and even build dwellings with it. Water vaporThe distinction between a gas and a vapor is subtle: the term vapor refers to the gaseous form of a substance that is a liquid or a solid under normal conditions (25°C, 1.0 atm). Nitrogen (N₂) and oxygen (O₂) are thus referred to as gases, but gaseous water in the atmosphere is called water vapor. is a component of the air we breathe, and it is produced whenever we heat water for cooking food or making coffee or tea. Water vapor at temperatures greater than 100°C is called steam. Steam is used to drive large machinery, including turbines that generate electricity. The properties of the three states of water are summarized in Table 10.1 "Properties of Water at 1.0 atm".

The geometric structure and the physical and chemical properties of atoms, ions, and molecules usually do not depend on their physical state; the individual water molecules in ice, liquid water, and steam, for example, are all identical. In contrast, the macroscopic properties of a substance depend strongly on its physical state, which is determined by intermolecular forces and conditions such as temperature and pressure.

Figure 10.2 "Elements That Occur Naturally as Gases, Liquids, and Solids at 25°C and 1 atm" shows the locations in the periodic table of those elements that are commonly found in the gaseous, liquid, and solid states. Except for hydrogen, the elements that occur naturally as gases are on the right side of the periodic table. Of these, all the noble gases (group 18) are monatomic gases, whereas the other gaseous elements are diatomic molecules (H₂, N₂, O₂, F₂, and Cl₂). Oxygen can also form a second allotrope, the highly reactive triatomic molecule ozone (O₃), which is also a gas. In contrast, bromine (as Br₂) and mercury (Hg) are liquids under normal conditions (25°C and 1.0 atm, commonly referred to as “room temperature and pressure”). Gallium (Ga), which melts at only 29.76°C, can be converted to a liquid simply by holding a container of it in your hand or keeping it in a non-air-conditioned room on a hot summer day. The rest of the elements are all solids under normal conditions.

Figure 10.2 Elements That Occur Naturally as Gases, Liquids, and Solids at 25°C and 1 atm

The noble gases and mercury occur as monatomic species, whereas all other gases and bromine are diatomic molecules.

Many of the elements and compounds we have encountered so far are typically found as gases; some of the more common ones are listed in Table 10.2 "Some Common Substances That Are Gases at 25°C and 1.0 atm". Gaseous substances include many binary hydrides, such as the hydrogen halides (HX); hydrides of the chalcogens; hydrides of the group 15 elements N, P, and As; hydrides of the group 14 elements C, Si, and Ge; and diborane (B₂H₆). In addition, many of the simple covalent oxides of the nonmetals are gases, such as CO, CO₂, NO, NO₂, SO₂, SO₃, and ClO₂. Many low-molecular-mass organic compounds are gases as well, including all the hydrocarbons with four or fewer carbon atoms and simple molecules such as dimethyl ether [(CH₃)₂O], methyl chloride (CH₃Cl), formaldehyde (CH₂O), and acetaldehyde (CH₃CHO). Most of the commonly used refrigerants discussed in an earlier chapter, such as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), are gases at room temperatures and normal pressure.

All of the gaseous substances mentioned previously (other than the monatomic noble gases) contain covalent or polar covalent bonds and are nonpolar or polar molecules. In contrast, the strong electrostatic attractions in ionic compounds, such as NaBr (boiling point = 1390°C) or LiF (boiling point = 1673°C), prevent them from existing as gases at room temperature and pressure. In addition, the lightest members of any given family of compounds are most likely gases, and the boiling points of polar compounds are generally greater than those of nonpolar compounds of similar molecular mass. Therefore, in a given series of compounds, the lightest and least polar members are the ones most likely to be gases. With relatively few exceptions, however, compounds with more than about five atoms from period 2 or below are too heavy to exist as gases under normal conditions.

While gases have a wide array of uses, a particularly grim use of a gaseous substance is believed to have been employed by the Persians on the Roman city of Dura in eastern Syria in the third century AD. The Persians dug a tunnel underneath the city wall to enter and conquer the city. Archeological evidence suggests that when the Romans responded with counter-tunnels to stop the siege, the Persians ignited bitumen and sulfur crystals to produce a dense, poisonous gas. It is likely that bellows or chimneys distributed the toxic fumes. The remains of about 20 Roman soldiers were discovered at the base of the city wall at the entrance to a tunnel that was less than 2 m high and 11 m long. Because it is highly unlikely that the Persians could have slaughtered so many Romans at the entrance to such a confined space, archeologists speculate that the ancient Persians used chemical warfare to successfully conquer the city.